Volume 3, Issue 1

Spring, 2006

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Visual Aids by Kylan Swain

Not everyone learns in the same way, and it takes many different methods to get information to people. Unfortunately, everyone cannot have an individual teacher for himself or herself. It just isn’t feasible. So in an attempt to help students learn with ease and comfort, books and manuals are now trying to help by offering many teaching perspectives and extra tools in an attempt to reach a greater number of minds in the most ways possible.

Some people are very auditory learners; they can hear or read material and pick up on it with little difficulty. Others require more direct methods to comprehend what listeners get with ease; for them, visual learning can really help absorb all the information. Still, some people need even more help, and that’s where hands-on learning comes in. A lot of people do learn better through visual methods, so that’s what I’ll be focusing on in this chapter.

School textbooks and instruction booklets rely heavily on text to stress a point or explain a method or set of instruction. Still, as clear as the writing may be and direct as it may seem to some, many still need something else to clarify. There are many different visual aids that can be used, and each has its own set of rules and purposes. The most common visuals aids are Tables, Graphs, Photos, and Diagrams. All are placed alongside text to help clarify the text and help further connections and understanding.

Tables

A table is a visual aid that presents scientific or mathematical data in an organized and uncomplicated way. It consists of columns containing variable data and notes that help to reiterate what has been said in the text accompanying the table. There are a lot of rules when it comes to building a graph, but first there is the issue if you should use a table.

If the data is repetitive but must be presented, then a table can be used. But you generally want to avoid repeating the same information over and over again, no matter how much you have written or collected. Really, you only want to include samples and breakpoints, which should help point out the information that may get lost in the text and needs to be filtered out and noted. The reason it is considered “uncouth” to make needlessly long tables and include a lot of white space, is that the publishing costs are high. Plus it takes up valuable space in a book that could be better used. (Day 61, 62)

For something as simple as a table, there are a lot of rules to keep in mind when constructing one. A table should avoid stating stable or standard information in its own column, such as an experiment constantly ran at 70 degrees. Now this could be noted in the text or placed into a footnote since it is important information, but avoid putting it as a major point in the table. It just takes up space that could be used for more pertinent information. Another good tip is to avoid 0’s and 100’s. Some may be necessary, but they can almost ALWAYS be left out with no loss to the table’s meaning. Pluses and Minuses (except when dealing with negative numbers, such as a temperature) should also be avoided since they just restate what the numbers say. A reader can tell for himself/herself, whether or not a value has gone up or down. (Day 62, 63)

Since many tables show numbers and relations, only significant figures should be represented, simple calculations and columns without important variation should be left out, and decimal points should always line up. Word lists are also useless as a table, as all of the information provided can easily be presented within the text. (Day 63)

With all of the things that you shouldn’t put into a table, how do you arrange what you will include? The most important thing to remember is that like elements should read down instead of across. This has two reasons, to make it easy to read, and to conserve space. Words are lined up on the left, while numbers get lined up on the right, or on the decimal point. The tables almost always have horizontal rules, which are the lines across the table. The table must contain a clear heading and be well labeled so that readers know where and how it reflects what the text is saying. Footnotes explain but do not repeat what a table says, so they should only be used when absolutely necessary. A reader should be able to understand the table without referencing the text, but shouldn’t give all of the details, especially the experimental details that a reader would need to repeat the experiment. (Day 64-67)

There are a few more general rules that should be observed. Such as, try to avoid using exponents in headings, and explain them if you have to. There should always be something indicating to editors and to readers which table the text is referencing, this also lets the reader know where he or she should read for further understanding of the table. (Day 66)

There are many ways to make a table, and whether you do it by hand, or build one by computer, the rules should be used to make a clear, effective table for the reader. The following table was constructed out of made-up data. It illustrates what a correct table should look like.

Figure 1: Characteristics of Surge Protector Stability

* Tests ran in a room set to 75 degrees Fahrenheit
* Tested over a six week period

This graph tells you a bit if you look at it without the text that goes with it. You can understand what it is saying, all of the text is pertinent to the table, and it shows numbers that are needed and relevant. The heading clearly states what the table is about, and it is clearly labeled as table three. The footnotes are information not noted in the text, but needed should the reader with to recreate the experiment.

The text would help clarify facts further, telling you for sure what is important in a surge protector and what is dangerous. For instance, it would tell you that an operating temperature above 90 degrees is dangerous and likely to start fires due to excess heat. Also important is an amp output of above 7500 would cause harmful shocks and power outages over long-running time periods, and a watt output of below 350 would cause power failure in appliances. Together with the text, the table makes sense and gives information that can be stated in the text, but clearly outlines what each surge protector offers and its faults.

Graphs

In the simplest terms, a graph is a pictorial table. Easy to look and decipher and usually a little more fun to look at than a table. But it should still be taken into consideration whether or not the graph is necessary. If the graph is stating something simple, like optimal ph at 7.3, then it should be said, rather than put into a graph.

So when to use a graph, and why not a table? Graphs primarily show trends when the numerical data isn’t as important as the shape of the data. A graph, like a table, is just a way to show data in an organized manner. Usually a graph is used with data that shows an interesting picture of the relationship between numbers. (Day 71)

One of the most basic rules for making a graph is to use large enough lettering that information can be read. Readers should be able to comfortably read the print within a graph, with big enough print to see, and enough space between letters and words to construct meaning out of what is being said. It is a good idea to make a bar or line graph within a box if possible. This is to help show the relationship to the numbers from any side of the graph, letting a reader compare the right margin to the y-axis (left line), or the top of the graph to the bottom (x-axis). Also, the scribe marks (the little tick marks) should point inwards. When arranging several graphs that need to remain together, avoid the side-by-side method of arrangement, which places graphs side-by-side, taking up the paper width wise, and shoot for the over and under way, which uses the length of the paper, to avoid size reduction problems. (Day 73, 74)

It isn’t necessary to take the parameters of your graph to big round numbers. If the last number needed along the y-axis are 67 then take the numbering to 70, not to 100. This is really to help avoid wasting space and to put an emphasis on the important information within the graph. (Day 75)

To avoid cluttering, use the widest numerical distances by numbers possible. For example, in a test measuring by 100’s, the scribe marks should be labeled at 100, but an intermediate mark should be used at the50 mark to help save space and keep the graph easy to read. If there is open space, a key could be included, showing what colors, shapes, and types of lines represent what, but if the graph has a lot of curves, then maybe it should be broken up into multiple graphs to keep the number of variations per graph low. One of the biggest mistakes made is mixing up what you use to represent the number trends; don’t mix symbols with lines and colored bars, pick one and stick with it. (Day 75, 75)

The graph’s legend should be included on a separate sheet so that the printer can easily set the two on the page, since it uses different processes. With the programs available, software makes graphing an easy process and can cause graphs to be too crowded and confusing. Computers make graph construction very easy, but with all of the format variations some standards make for easily transferable files. The most commonly used formats are PIC, TIFF, and EPS. (Day 76, 77, 78)

With all of the information and graphs available, how does one choose which to use? A Pie chart illustrates change over time within a whole percentage and proportions, like percentage spending in a company from a whole budget. A bar chart shows proportions, relations and trends and changes over time, say a class is tracking how students performed on their tests within a semester. Multi-plot charts display correlations between events, such as how different terrorist attacks change the spending in an economy. And line graphs show trends and changes over time. Looking at this, when making a chart, it really depends on what you’re trying to show and what you feel comfortable making.

Some other rules include keeping measured intervals the same, keeping a line’s visual weight (thickness), and define each data set clearly. When preparing a graph for publication the font should be a san serif type and no smaller than 8 point, avoid using novelty fonts and excessive word sizing. Boldface type can be used on important labels, and avoid using patterns (like stripes) in bar graphs. You should keep lines about 0.5 points thick, symbols should all be the same size, and tick marks should be used instead of graph lines. Lastly, a legend should be created to help clarify symbols and information. (Day 81, 82, 83)

There are lots of examples of graphs, and the following two are examples of bar and pie charts that have been made up from various information.

Figure 2: Percentage of Money Spent Last Quarter from Arts Budget

*Figures out of $2,000,000

*Fall quarter 2005

Now this is useless without something to explain what each color represents. The text may say that the graph shows expenditures including supplies, shipping, labor, damages, etc, but what colors represent what on the pie chart? The text could say that blue equals supplies and so on, but adding a legend into the graph, like the following, takes up less space and creates an easy visual guide as to what color equals what cost.

Figure 3: Pie Chart Legend

Then, there are bar graphs (line graphs are very much similar).

Figure 4: Bar Graph

* Takes into account inflation

This graph is a bit unusual in that the y-axis isn’t labeled directly on the axis, but space did not allow for it. Without any legend, all this bar graph shows is that some items, we don’t know which, changed after 9/11. Some became more desirable while others grew less so. The white space between the two sets of bars would be a perfect place for this legend, which elaborates.

Figure 5: Bar Graph Legend

With this legend, we now know what went up and down in consumption. It’s up to the text to tell us why each item changed as it did, and maybe predict future trends with each good.

A line graph could help show even further the change over time, illustrating the highs and lows of each good. This kind of chart can be seen commonly dealing with the stock market or financial growth, as it effectively shows the trends money tends to take.

Photographs

One of the simplest to use and widely placed visual aids is the photograph or picture. This can be a simple snapshot, or an elaborate set of visuals including diagrams, comics and photos. Unfortunately, as simple as photographs are, they can easily be rendered useless, or they can be the most valuable piece of the paper or book. The really important thing is the quality of the visual. Sometimes bad quality can’t be avoided, though it can make such an impact that some journals and scientific books are famous for the quality of their visual aids. (day 84)

There are a few important things to keep in mind when choosing and sending your photograph. The only thing that needs to be in frame is the important part of the photo, so the picture of the Bengal tiger only needs to show the tiger’s profile, and not the full countryside around it, the river in the distance, or the plane in the sky. You should avoid reducing the photo more than 50%, but it can be handled if the print can withstand the size. (Day 86)

If the photo cannot be cropped to show only the pertinent portions of the photo, then arrows or markers can be superimposed to draw the reader’s attention to the correct place. You should always mark what should be the top of your photo, and a guide mark should be included to inform the printer where the picture is to be placed. If the picture is magnified, then there should be some mark to show the percentage of reduction or enlargement in some cases. Also, don't forget to mark the top. It's suprising how much that mistake is made. (Day 89, 90)

Even with decreased costs, many photographs printed are still not color, so always have a black and white or four-color alternative in case the publication can not support a full color photo. If the picture is a pen and ink piece, then care should betaken to avoid distortion or smearing that can occur in the transfer into print, usually due to ink incompatibility. Finally, care should be taken as to what format the pictures should electronically be presented in. With all of the photo-shopping programs out there, JPEG and Bitmap should be considered the standard. Also, remember to check pixel resolution, about 600 dpi is appropriate. (Day 89, 90)

When choosing your visual aid, you need to consider the situation. History books use a lot of old pictures and photo prints. Also commonly seen in history texts, are comics and cartoons, which can be an effective method of showing some historical perspective. An editorial cartoon or political drawing from early America could be placed within a history text to illustrate the problems people once had with candidates taking too much power with concern to voting, or to show the importance of satire at the time. Generally, these cartoons are ones actually published at the historical period, and permission can be hard to obtain, but sometimes a newer cartoon can illustrate just as well, the point the author attempts to make. Permission is something that should always be considered when dealing with photos, as some things are easier to get permission to use than others. The goal is to help others learn visually, but avoid a lawsuit.

English, foreign language, and math books have also been known to use comics and cartoons to help with a problem or learning a phrase or idea. A good example is this German illustration that can be found in various textbooks with various pictures accompanying the phrase that translates to “you jump”. This particular visual was created specially for this chapter.

Figure 6

Springen Sie!

Such a picture can help to implant visual clues in the mind that help people recall what they have seen or read in context with the picture. Such as a student seeing this and connecting springen sie with a bunny jumping, and learning that springen sie means “you jump”.

In regards to science texts and historical texts, a picture can be worth a thousand words, or even a whole page. A book could spend three whole paragraphs discussing the crazy mix of animals that makes up a platypus, and hole paragraphs have gone to describing the squalid conditions of depression era Hoovervilles. A picture can get the same message across with so much less space, and much more of a mental impact. The phrase “a picture is worth a thousand words” has never been truer.

The following two pictures are included with permission from Redwolf Inc., and could be found in a book accompanying text.

Figure 7: Piranha

This school of Piranha, usually found in the Amazon Basin, swims in their freshwater tank. (Permission granted from Redwolf Inc.)

Figure 8

The two oldest gravestones in Charleston, Sc. illustrates the common style for headstones at the turn of the 17th century. (Permission granted from Redwolf Inc.)

Even by themselves these pictures along with their captions offer information, but when placed with text explaining the significance of the skull artwork on the headstone or discussing the deadliness of the piranha, the pictures help to show what words alone couldn’t.

With every visual aid, proper labeling and captioning is required. Without any text or caption, these are meaningless pictures, but adding captions add meaning that connects the image to the text.

Finally, very important to scientific and medical texts, the diagram is the heavily labeled and usually elaborate picture or drawing that attempts to point out the important parts of a whole picture.

Figure 9:The Parts of the Fencing Saber

* French-Grip

This could be a diagram out of a fencing handbook, breaking down and labeling the different pieces of the standard French-grip saber. The text could explain why each piece is named such and what purpose it serves in the fencing process. Once again this diagram was created specially for this paper.

The visual aid can be a crucial part of any book or paper, but if misused, it is nothing more than a waste of space, ink, and money. There are a lot of things to remember about each type of visual aid, and a lot of reasons not to use them. But as a writer, you must carefully check each one and use mostly your common sense to determine if a visual aid is needed. Basically, if it can be said in the text and be effective, it doesn’t need to be visualized. But if a picture, or a graph, or a table can offer some point of view or show something that the text can’t, then a visual aid can be used to help further a reader’s comprehension of the material.

So before you add any aid to your piece, evaluate the need for a visual aid carefully, and then if you decide to make one, follow all of the rules and think about the how the reader could benefit and learn further from your work.

Bibliography

Day, Robert A. (1998). How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper 5th edition. (pp.61 – 91). Westport, Ct. Oryx Press.

Swain-Giboney, Rhian."Redwolf Inc."(1999).<http://www.redwolf-inc.com/>